معماری دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تبریز

به تكامل تدريجي معماري اسلامي در ايران بعضي اوقات به عنوان يك توسعه كندي كه منجر به ظهور ناگهاني بناهاي با شكوه مي شود توجه مي شو دكه در قرن چهاردهم شروع و تا 500 سال بعد ادامه يافت .مسلما به بسياري از روشهاي دوره پيشين در قرن چهاردهم مي توانيم يه عنوان يك پيش در آمد يا مقدمه در حال جريان بنگريم كه داراي تعداد قابل ملا حظه اي بنا هاي يادگاري با شكوه مي با شد . كه اين بنا ها بعدا به صورت نمايشنا مه هايي از اشكال اصلي براي جهان اسلام  شرق محسوب شدند . به هر حال در قرن چهار دهم اين مقدمه پايان پذيرفت  و پيشه وران ايراني به عنوان ماهران ظاهر پديدار شدند و همچنين به كار بردن تكنيك هايي كه قادر ساخت آنها را كه سطوح اين ظواهر يا اشكال راب ا شكوه ترين آذين هاي ممكنه بپوشانند و همواره نو آوري هاي توسط تكنيك هاي گوناگون و سبك هاي گوناگون بوجود آمده اندك ه به سنت هاي كهن ايران نزديك بودند واين نو آوري ها را رابا مهارتهاي فراوان و تصور آسياي مر كزي مرتبط ساختند . اين ارتباط بوجود آورد دسته هايي از اشكال اساسي را به طور ي كه پيشه ور ايراني مي توانست مهارتهاي قابل ملاحظه و بر جسته اي را در  آذين سطح بكار گيرد .د رتمام طول تاريخ ايران ، پيشه وران به تبحر يا مهارت روي تمام سطح علاقه داشتند و بوجود آورند بنا هاي يا دگاري مهم و بر جسته اي را به طور كامل  با آذين و تزئين نقش بسته بودند و خيلي با شكوه تر از فرم يا شكل واقعي بنظر مي رسيدند .در طول قرن يازدهم و دوازدهم سراسر كشورتحت تسلط تر كهاي آسياي مر كزي بودند كه نقش هاي اين كشور  دگر گون شد و تبديل به تصرف كلي شد .با

وجود اين محرك يا فشار پيشه وران ايراني اشكال اساسي مقرر شده اي را به وجود آورده اند و طبعتا بعد آن اشكال را در نما يشنامه ها قرار دادند . با وجود اين  با ظهور اولين سلسله ايراني براي قرن ها مظفر الديه ها بودند كه مدرسه تازه تاسيس را توسط معماري زمان خود بوجود آوردند . همانطوري كه قبلا گفته شد در جاي ديگر مفهوم ايران به عنوان نيازهاي كاري مشخص و معين شده به كار برده شده است براي اينكه قلمرو هاي مدرن از تاريخي گمراه كننده هستند . در حال حاظر ايران در قلب جهان قرار گرفته است كه قبلا شامل نواحي شمال ود خانه آمودريا  بود و البته ايالات كهن خراسان و سيستان بطوري كه حالا در اتحاد شوروي و افغانستان قرار گرفته است .در طول دوره تيموري ها ،هر دو پايتخت امپراتوري ،هرات و سمر قند قرار داشت .همان طور كه تاريخ هم نشان مي دهد در اين دوره ها طرح هاي معماري بسيار زيادي ارائه شده است و ارتباط با تاريخ- فرمانروايان  حكومتها دارد.

مطفرالدين 1314.1393

با فرو پاشي امپرا توري مغول خان در سال 1330 تعداد حكومت هاي محلي كوچك به وجود آمدند كه اغلب تحت نظر فرمانروايان مغول و بر پايه تشكيلات اداري و حكومت آنها بوجود آمده اند .

مظفر الدين در زمان مغولان حاكم اصفهان و يزد بود و پس از مرگ ابوسعيد آخرين فرمانرواي مغولان در سال 1336 حكومت كرمان و قسمت هاي بيشتري از جنوب غربي ايران و عراق را بدست گرفتند .

پس از ظهور تيمور حكومت اين مناطق را به وي واگذار كرد . تيمور پس از 10 سال در سال 1391 تصميم به استقلال حكومت خود گرفت و مظفرالدين را به قتل رسانيد . حمايت مظفرالدين از هنر بسيار قابل توجه است از جمله مشوق و حامي شاعر بزرگ حافظ بود البته خدمات ارزنده اي در زمينه معماري نيز انجام داده . از جمله يادگارهاي وي مسجد جنوبي ايران است . نمونه ساختمان هاي مكشوفه اين دورة تاريخ شناس بودن مغولان در اين نواحي و ساخته شدن آنها توسط آخرين مغولاني كه در اين مناطق بودند اما آنها معماري جديدي در جنوب ايران پياده نمودند .

مظفريه هاي ساكن در اين مناطق تحت نظر مغولان بودند مركز قدرت حكومت مظفرالدين يزد و كرمان و اصفهان بود . مجتمع معروف يزد دوبناي تاريخي : مسجد vag-u-saat وقت يا ساعت و مسجد جامع ثزد مي باشد . هر دو اين بناها به يفارش تعدادي از مقامات عالي رتبه قضايي ساخته شده و در هر دو اين بناها خصوصا vag-u-saat مرمت يا تغيير داده شده . اين مسجد كوچك امروزه به صورت مجتمعي از مدرسه ، كتابخانه و رصدخانه مي باشد . در طول اين قرن نيز تغييرات اساسي در ساختمان مسجد جامع صورت گرفته . تاريخ اصلي بناي اين ساختمان از تاريخ 1324 تا 1331 مي باشد . محراب مسجد از جمله قسمت هايي است كه به خوبي تزيين شده و تاريخ بناي آن 1375 مي باشد .

از جمله بناهاي ديگر قرن 15 . مسجد جامع كرمان مي باشد در تمامي قسمت هاي اين مسجد از صنعت كاشي كاري معرق استفاده شده كه يكي از ابداعات نوين معماري دورة مظفريه مي باشد . مسجد جامع كرمان در سال 1349 پس از تصرف كرمان توش مظفريه ساخته شده و هيچ نشان اوليه از بناي اين ساختمان امروزه باقي نمانده است . قبل از اين دوره استفاده از رنگ هاي سير در معماري وجود داشته و براي تزيين بناها از آجرهاي لعاب دار و تكه هاي كوچك سفالي استفاده مي شد . مقبرة باشكوه الجايتو ( يكي از حكمرانان مغول است . ) قبل از سال 1317 ساخته شده . در ساخت اين بنا براي اولين بار از كاشي هاي كوچك لعابدار استفاده شده اگر چه امكان تهيه اين نوع كاشي ها در كرمان وجود نداشت . اين نوع سبك معماري بزودي در جنوب ايران استقبال شد . استفاده از كاشي هاي لعابدار در مسجد جامع يزد و مدرسه Madarase كه مظفرالدين به مسجد جامع افزود مرسوم شد . چهار رنگ اصلي مورد استفاده در سلطانيه آبي سير و روشن ، سفيد و سياه مي باشد . مظفريه رنگ هاي سبز بادنجاني مايل به قهوه اي و زرد طلايي كه رگه اي از 7 رنگ را داشته باشد به اين چهار رنگ اضافه نمود . قبل از تيموريان ، يكي ديگر از حكومت هاي محلي كه بوجود آمد جلايريان مي باشند كه در عراق و شمال غربي عراق مستقرند . آنها با طغيان عثماني ها مواجه بودند و به همين دليل با مظفريه رابطة دوستي برقرار نمودند . آنها هميشه مرافب و فرمانبردار تيموريان بودند . بنابراين براي حفظ قدرت خود در آن منطقه تا سال 1432 مستقر شدند . جلايريان از نقاشان هندي بسيار حمايت مي كردند و انها مؤسس مدرسه نقاشي مينياتور در ايران بودند . چند بناي تاريخي در ايران وجود دارد كه مربوط به دورة تيموريان ميباشد . از جمله چند مغازة بزرگ در مسجد جامع شوشتر ميباشد . تزئينات مسجد تقريباً تخريب شده در مقايسه اين مغازه با ديگر مناره هاي هم عصر آن دورة تيموري مشاهده مي كنيم كه در طرح ساختماني آن از كاشي هاي لعابدار آبي رنگ كه به صورت شبكه هاي لوزي شكل هستند استفاده شده ، ستون مناره ها از آجرهاي غير لعابدار مي باشد . چنين تزئينات موجود در تيموري نه باعث پيشرفت در جنوب ايران شده و نه انقلاب هنري در زمان تيموري بوجود آورده فقط براي تأكيد به جدائي بين النهرين از ايران در آن زمان است .

تيمورها : 1506 – 1370

پس از 150 سال دنياي شرق اسلامي به تدريج ويراني ها و خرابي هايي كه چنگيزخان و فرمانروايان مغول در اوايل قرن 13 در ايران بوجود آورده بودند بازسازي نمودند . قسمت هاي شرق ايران آباد نشد و در اثر متوقف شدن كار آبياري مبدل به كويرهاي خشك گرديد . قدرت مركزي مغولان به طور كامل منقرض شد اما حكومت هاي كوچك وارد جنگ با يگديگر شدند در اين دوره هنر و فرهنگ به اوج شكوفايي خود رسيد . در اين جامعه متلاشي اما روبه رشد هجوم آخرين موج اسب سواران آسياي مركزي كه توسط تيمور ، كسي كه ادعاي نابودي چنگيز خان را داشت ، به پيش مي رفتند .

تيمور پايه هاي اصلي حكومت تزار در شوروي واقع در آسياي مركزي پياده نمود و آنجا را مركز اصلي حكومت خود قرار داد در اوايل سال 1380 ميلادي بر شمال شرقي ايران غلبه يافت و تا سال 1393 در آنجا مستقر شدند وي در سال 1395 وارد مسكو شد و در سال 1398 Dehli  در هند را غارت نمود وتا نيمه هاي آسيا پيشروي نمود و در سال 1402 عثمان را در آنكارا واقع در مغـلوب نمود تيمور در سـال 1405 مرد و امپراطوري اش بين پسر ونوه هايب پسرش تقسيم شد پسرش شاهرخ كنترل قسمت اصلي قلمرو تيمور را بدست گرفت از جمله ايران و عراق و آسياي مركزي است و هرات را پايتخت خود قرار داد و قدرت خود را در سراسر چين وهند گسترده نمود شاهرخ در سال 1447 مرد و وپسرش الق بيگ ulugh-Beg جانشين وي شد گستره امپراطوري در زمان وي بسار عقب نشيني كرد ولي قدرت سياسي خود را تاحدود حفظ كرده بود ظهور تيمور به عنوان يك فرد فاجعه آميز در تاريخ قابل توجه مي باشد در طول 35 سال جنگ او فقط دنبال رو مرگ ونابودي بود از جمله فجيع ترين كارهاي وي ايجاد هرمي از جمجمه هاي صنعتگران در خارج از شهرهايي بود كه ويران مي كرد او تعداد از هنرمندان را براي ساخت پايتخت جديد خود به سمرقند فرستاد و درانجا مجموعه اي از بناها را ايجاد نمود كه نمونه اي از سبك معماري نوين مشرق زمين بودند و در بناي اين مجموعه از سبك جديد معماري استفاده شده بود تيمور اين ايده ها و سبك هاي نويني كه توسط صنعتگران ابداع شده بود به مناطق مختلف گسترش داد و اين سبك نوين معماري باعث ستايش و پر اهميت خواندن آنان گرديد تعدادي از اين بناهاي باشكوه مقبره  مسلمانان خيّر بودند كه در قرن هاي پيشين وجود داشتند شماري از مجتمع ها را به نام ((شهرهاي كوچك خدا )) در شهرهاي بسطام و نظنز ، قم ، اردبيل و ماهان و مشهد بنا گرديد و اين شهرها به صورت مقبره هاي زيارتي حتي بعد از امپراطوري تيموري در زمان حكومت صفويه نيز وجود داشتند از مهمترين و با شكوه ترين اين بناها مقبره زيارتي مشهد مي باشد ومسجد گوهرشاد همسر شاهرخ . يكي از باشكوه ترين مساجد اين دوره مي باشدنماي اين مسجد كه بسيار قابل توجه مي باشد و تيمور آن را از معماري هندي گرفته و براي اولين بارخارج از هند در مسجد بربر خانم در سمرقند بنا شد از قسمت هاي باشكوه اين مسجد جفت مناره واقع درايران مي باشد كه قبلاً چنين نمونه اي در ايران وجود نداشت . چنين سبك و طرح معماري ايراني بسيار مورد قبول و پند واثع شد . كاشي كاري لعابدار در دورة تيموري به اوج شكوفايي خود رسيد . در دورة مظفرالدين استفاده از اين كاشي ها مرسوم براي اولين بار مرسوم شد و در دورة تيموري استفاده از آنها به طور گسترده اي رواج پيداكرد و چهار رنگ اضافي نيز به رنگ هاي اصلي آن اضافه نمود . اين تركيب رنگ ها در زمينة گلي به صورت سايه اي كم رنگ به خود جلوه گر مي شود . بهترين نمونه هاي اين سبك در دو پايتخت تيمور ، سمرقند و هذات به خوبي ديده مي شود و نمونه هاي اين سبك در دو پايتخت تيمور ، سمرقند و هرات به خوبي ديده مي شود و نمونه هاي ديگر پيدا شده در مشهد و خارگرد و استان هاي ورزان و اصفهان مي باشد . در اين دوره در زمينه هاي ديگر معماري نيز پيشرفت خاص صورت گرفته از جمله در زمينه معماري گنبد . جدايي عمده اي بين معماري داخلي و خارجي گنبدهاي بوجود آمد . قسمت بيروني آن به صورت بنايي بلند و بزرگ مي باشد . قسمت داخلي گنبد كه به صورت پوشيده مي باشد و از سبك معماري داخلي استفاده شده و قسمت داخلي آن تا حدودي كم عمق مي باشد . در مقايسه با گنبدهاي اولية دورة تيموري اين ستون برهيچ واسطة قابل ديدي بنا شده اند . در معماري داخلي تكنيكي جديد پياده شده مثل استفاده از شكل هاي آويزان به جاي استفاده از طرح هاي ثابت و محكم . اين طرح هاكه به صورت جفت گنبدهايي كه به صورت تزئيني بر روي ايوان ها قرار داشتند ديده مي شود ايوان هايي كه به صورت چكنده ( استالايت ) بوده و سطح آنها ثابت نمي باشد . اين طرح باعث تقسيم داخل به صورت واحد بوده به حالت واحدهاي چند تايي در مي آيد . تركيب رنگ و تغيير در معماري بيروني با اندازه گنبد مطابقت داشت . ورودي هاي تزئيني بسيار بلند و نماي انها بسيار حيرت انگيز مي باشد در بناي مناره ها به سبك معماري سنتي توجهي نشده است . 8 مناره در آرامگاه مغولان واقع در سلطانيه كه اطلاف گني درا احاطه كرده اند وجود دار داين مناره ها در مقايسه با مناره هاي سمرقند اندازة كوچكي دارند . تزئينات مناره محدود به مساجد و مدارس مي باشد مناره ها به طور كلي حالت تزئيني دارند در موقع دعا و نماز و براي ايجاد روشنايي كاربرد داشت . در بام مناره اطاقك هايي وجود دارد كه گلدسته ناميده شده و براي موقع نماز و نيايش استفاده مي شو داين مناره ها به عنوان خانة فانوس دريايي كاربرد نداشت فقط براي مصارف خيريه و دعا بود . اين نوع معماري حيرت انگيز در آسياي مركزي و اطراف هرات مرسوم شد كه سبك هاي جديد نيز به اين نوع معماري ها اضافه شد . بسياري از مقبره هاي دورة تيموري در ايران داراي اين مشخصات هستند و فقط استفادة محدوي دارند . پياده كردن اين نوع سبك ها در مشرق ايران تا نيمه هاي قرن 15 ادامه داشت . در اين زمان قسمت هاي غرب و شمال توسط تركمن ها اشغال شد و حكومت تيمورها محدود به خراسان شد و از پيشرفت اين نوع سبك معماري جلوگيري شد .

قرقويونلوها و آق قويونلوها 1508 – 1378

اين دوره متحد به نام هاي گوسفندان سياه و سفيد ، گروههايي بودند كه در قرن 11 و 13 به آسياي مركزي مهاجرت كردند و در اناتولي شرقي به عنوان چادرنشينان ناخواسته و آشوبگر مستقر شدند . با فروپاشي امپراطوري مغول ها قرقويونلوها توانستند كنترل شمال غربي ايران و عراق را بدست گيرند و با ايجاد ارتباط با تيموريان ادارة اين بلوك ها را در دست داشتند آق قويونلوها در غربي ترين قسمت آناتولي مستقر شده اما پس از 1469 توانستند به قسمت شرق ايران نفوذ كرده و كنترل ايران و عراق را در انتهاي خليج بدست گيرند . آنها در جنگ با عثمان ها در آناتولي شكست خوردند و اين شكست باعث بوجود آمدن حكومت صفويه شد . يكي از مشخصات جالب اتحاد تركمن ها رابطة مذهبي انها مي باشد . قرقويونلوها مذهب ( شيعه – سني ) داشتند و آق قويونلوها شيعه مذهب بودند و يكي از دلايل عمدة انتشار مذهب شيعه در ميان صفويه و قبيلة آنها شيعه بودن آق قويونلوها بود . از جمله بناهاي تاريخي اين دوره بناي مسجد كبود تبريز مي باشد كه بسيار زيبا مي باشد . يكي از مشخصات قابل توجه اين بنا استفاده از كاشي هاي لعابدار مي باشد و نام مسجد هم به همين خاطر نامگذاري شده ، اين طرح ها در معماري ايراني غير معمول بوده ، گنبد مركزي مسجد با چند گنبد كوچك احاطه شده كه شبيه بناهاي ايراني نمي باشد . اين بنا شبيه معماري عثمانيان مي باشد . تزئينات مسجد كبود كه به عنوان منبع غني ثروت محسوب مي شد از سنگ هاي لاجورد آبي مي باشد كه پاية هنر اسلامي مي باشد . امروزه بسياري از اين سنگ ها فرسوده شده اما شمار باقيمانده نيز نشانگر هنر صنعتگران مي باشد .

قسمت بالاي محراب پوشيده از كاشي هاي لعابدار آبي رنگ مي باشد كه با طلايي پوشيده شده اندو قسمت زيرين محراب پوشيده از ورقه هاي بسيار بزرگ سنگهاي مرمرين مي باشد .از ديگر مكانهاي مقدس تركمن ها در ايران ،زيارتگاه درب امام د راصفهان مي باشد .

در ميدان مسجد كاشان از صنعت كاشي كاري فوق العاده اي استفاده شده و حياط مسجد جامع اصفهان به همين منوال مي باشد .

تماس اين سبك هاي معماري دنبال رو سبكهاي معماري دوره تيموري بوده و تا اواخر قرن 15 در مشرق زمين پيدا شده .مسجد كبود يكي از بي نظيرترين بناهاي اين دوره مي باشد .تركمن ها به صنعت معماري ايراني كمكهاي شاياني نمودند و سبك معماري نويني را به اين هنر اضافه نمودند .

اگر جه در دوره تيموري نيز سبك معماري زيادي وارد اين هنر شده ،از جمله وجود گنبد هاي بلند ،آرامگاههايي كه سبك معماري هندي در بناي اين مقبره ها نفوذ داشته قرن 16و17 اوج شكوفايي معماري ايراني تحت حمايت حكومت هاي محلي كه تركي زبان بودند و هدف آنها تاكيد به گذشته ايرانيان و در صدد بهبود كشور و حفظ ماهيت ايراني بودند .

صفويه :1732-1501

در اوايل قرن 14 شيخ صفي :صوفي بنيا نگذار سلسله صفويه باعث نابودي و متلاشي شدن قبايل ترك كه سني مذهب بودند ،شدند و چون خودشان شيعه مذهب بودند در قرن 15 اين مذهب را در مناطق قلمرو پس از از به قدرت رسيدن قاجارها باز سازي شده آثار معماري

فراواني از زمان صفويه به جا مانده است كه اين بناها بسيار با شكوه مي باشد.

خود گسترش دادند .پس از يك دوره طولاني شيعه به عنوان مذهب رسمي اعلام گرديد ودر سال 1501 رهبري از ميان آق قويونلوها انتخاب شد كه 10 سال رهبر تمام ابرانيان بود و با عنوان شاه اسماعيل اول به سلطنت رسيد .بعد از شاه اسماعيل فرمانروايان ديگر صفويه به اين ادعا را داشتند كه از خانواده پيامبر بوده و جانشين امام زمان در زمين هستند .اين عقايد آنان از روي قزلباش ها مورد قبول واقع  شد اين گروه چون كلاه قرمز بر سر مي گذاشتند به اين اسم ناميده مي شدند .مذهب شيعه به عنوان مذهب رسمي از سوي اكثريت مردم مورد قبول واقع شد اما در مركز آذربايجان در مورد اين مذهب اختلاف واقع شد .اين خط و مشي ها دليل سياي داشت از آن جمله كه دولت عثماني سني مذهب بودند و اين اختلاف مذهب باعث شد كه عثماني ها در اطراف ايران تجديد قوا كنند و از ايران براي خود مناطق جغرافيايي غير قابل تغيير جدا شد .در اين زمان صفويه از سوي دشمن چندي احاطه شده بود ،از جمله عثماني ها در غرب ،ازبك ها در شمال شرقي و شمال غربي شديدا ناامن بود .اين تهديدات باعث تغيير پايتخت از تبريز كه به حكومت عثماني ها بود به قزوين وسپس به اصفهان منتقل شود ،اما مركز ايران با وجود ايالت هاي مركزي مستحكم بود .در كشور مذهب يكي از عوامل بسيار مهم محسوب مي شود و همه مردم بر عليه سني مذهبان بودند و آنها محدود به شمال غرب كشور قرار داشتند .

اين حركت شيعي مذهبان براي آزار و اذيت غير شيعه نبود بلكه براي پياده نمودن عقايد مذهبي جديد در كشور بود .

همزمان با رشد قدرت شيعه در كشور و ايجاد پايه هاي مستحكم فكري گرو ه هايي مركب از فيلسو فان و مدرسه هاي مذهبي در كشور بوجود آمدند و افكار شيعي صوفي از بزرگترين حركات عمومي در كشور شد . يكي از اثرات انزواي ايرانيان با همسايگان خود كاهش و كوتاه شدن مسير هاي تجاري شد اين شيوه خصوصا در مرزهاي شوال شرقي كه ازبك ها در آنجا مستقر بودند .راه تجارت با آسياي مركزي بسيار كوتاه شد و با آمدن جاده ابريشم اين مسيرهاي طولاني خاتمه يافت .درقرن 16 ايران از راه درياييوارد تجارت با اروپا شد با كشف دماغه نيك اين مسير دريا بوجود آمد .با كشف اين مسير دريا بوجود آمد .با كشف اين مسير درياي ايران وارد تجارت با هند و ساير كشور هاي اروپايي شد . بسياري از اروپائيان وارد تجارت با ايرانيان شد ند و در اين زمان شاه عباس تعدادي از دانشمندان اروپايي را وارد دربار خود در اصفهان نمود .بناهاي تاريخي بسياري از زمان صفويه باقي مانده است و در زمان شاه اسماعيل اول تعدادي بناي تاريخي ساخته شده كه امروزه از بين رفته تعدادي از اين بناهاي به جاي مانده مسجد جامع ساوه و مقبره زيارتي ولايت هاروني در اصفهان مي باشد.امروزه مسجد جامع ساوه بسيار تخريب شده اما گنبد هاي باقيمانده از آن بسيار با شكوه مي باشد . از كاشي هاي فيروزه اي با طرح هاي چند ظلعي آبي روشن و سفيد مزين شده اين بنا شبه مسجد جامع ورامين مي باشد كه در قرن 15 در زمان مغولان بنا شده و داراي خطوط و نقش هاي بسيار زيبا مي باشد كه از هر چيز ديگري در اين بنا جلوه گر مي باشد .كاشي هاي مقبره ولايت هاروني در اصفهان داراي كيفيت و طرح و رنگ بسيار عالي هستند كه مربوط به كاشي كاري دوره تيموري مي باشدو طرح كاشي كاري دوره تيموري مي باشد و طرح كاشي كاري آنجا شبه درب امام كه در زمان قر قويونلو ها بنا شده بود مي باشد .اين بنا تا زمان شاه طهماسب به خوبي حفظ شده بود اما در زمان وي قسمت هايي از اين بنا تخريب شد .

شاه طهماسب مدت 50سال حكومت كرد و در اين مدت طولاني حامي هنر در ايران بود خصوصا صنعت كاشي كاري و نقاش منياتوري و قالي بافي خود نيز نقاش بسيار ماهري بود . در اواخر خود طهماسب بسار خسيس مسلك و غير ديني شد و بسياري از نقاشان دربار را اخراج نمود .مقال امپراتور همايون يكي از نقاشان بودكه به هند بر گشت و در آنجا دو اثر منياتوري بسيار نفيس كشيد و بزرگترين مدرسه نقاشي را بنا نمود .حشمت شاه طهماسب در معماري نيز بسيار ديده مي شود كيفيت تمام بناهاي ساخته شده در آن زمان بسيار در حد پاييني مي باشد . آنها نه تنها نقاشان ماهر را كه به هند رفته بودند بر نگرداند بلكه باعث نفوذ سبك معماري هند شده و باعث پيشرفت آنان شده اند .

قزوين پايتخت شاه طهماسب بود همانطور كه گفته شد مسجد شاه و كاخي كه چندان هم بزرگ نبود در آنجا ساخت .در اوايل قرن 19 زمين لرزه اي شديد تمام قزوين را ويران نمود .تنها آثار با قيمانده از كاخ شاه دروازه عالي قاپو مي باشد .همانطور كه گزارش شده مسجد شاه هم نابود شد اما نه بطور كامل و آثار باقيمانده از اين بناها بعد ها پس از اين زمين لرزه   پس از به قدرت رسيدن قاجارها بازسازي شده آثار معماري فراواني از زمان صفويه به جا مانده است كه اين بناها بسيار با شكوه مي باشد .

در آن دوره معماري اسلامي فراواني وجود داشت در اصفهان در اوايل قرن 17 شاه عباس بناهاي تاريخي با شكوهي به جا گذاشته .در اوايل حكومت شاه جوان از سوي عثماني ها و ازبك ها بسيار تهديد مي شد و هرات و مشهد در دست آنان بود اما بعدها با سياستي موفقيت آميز در اواخر حكومت خود كل كشور با هم متحد ودر آرامش و امنيت به سر مي برد.شاه عباس بسياري از پولداران و بزرگان حكومتي را از ميان قزلباشها انتخاب نمود و در مناطق حكومتي آنان گارد ويژه امنيتي ايجاد كرد .با پيوستن ارمنستان و گرجستان به دين ايرانيان شاه عباس شروع به تاسيس گروهي به نام شاهسون ها (شاه دوست ها )نمود كه در زمان شاه اسماعيل هم وجود داشت و مردم را تشويق مي نمود به اين قبايل ملحق شوند .هزاران نفر به اين قبايل ملحق شدند و باعث ايجاد حكومتي قدرتمند شد .قدم بعدي شاه عباس سازماندهي ارتش بود او در ايجاد چنين سازمان از اروپائيان كمك گرفت كه همزمان با ورود برادران شرلي به ايران در سال 1598 بود . آنان سربازان با كفايتي بودند كه با ورود آنان به ارتش باعث پيروزي هاي متعددي در ارتش شد .آنان استفاده از تفنگ رابه ارتش صفويه آموختند كه باعث پيروزي آنان در جنگها مي گشت .بنانراين ارتش ايران توانت بر تركمن ها غلبه كند و با شكست سپاه عثمان در تمام مناطق اشغالي شود.راه دريايي بازرگاني ايرانيان بسيار مورد توجه همگان واقع شد تجارت از اين راه با هند بسيار آسان بود حتي مورد توجه بسياري از خود نيز قرار گرفت چون به راحتي به توليدات ابريشمي خود مي پرداختند .با گذشتن از راه تركيه و جاده ابريشم اين راه تجاري هموار گشت .اين راه تجارت توسط بسياري از اروپائيان چشمگير شد ،در نتيجه بسياري از آنان به ايران راه يافتند .اين راه تجاري باعث شد شاه عباس از سوي عثمانيان مورد تهديد زياد واقع شود ،در نتيجه پايتخت را به اصفهان منتقل نمود كه مهمترين شهر در تجارت ايران بود .فرمانرواي موفق شهر را با بناهاي با شكوه مزين ساخت . از جمله مسجد جامع بزرگ كه در تاريخ معماري اسلامي ايران بي نظير مي باشد .بيرون شهر را نيز طرح هاي نويني پياده نمود .از جمله يك ميدان مركزي و جاده اصلي  .اين ميدان مركزي درست در وسط شهر جديد قرار داشت و اطراف آن را يكي از ساختمان هاي زيبا احاطه كرده اند .اصفهان در آن زمان در نوع خود بي نظير بود و چشم همگان را خيره مي كرد .

رود زاينده رود در اصفهان واقع مي باشد كه از غرب به شرق شهر در جريان است بناهاي شاه عباس از شمال به جنوب رود بنا شده اند .طرح اصلي ميدان بزرگ كه بيش از 500 متر طول و146 متر جنوب امتداد دارد و چهار ساختمان بزرگ و دو مسجد رو بروي آن قرار دارد .مسجد شيخ لطف الله خان و مسجد شاه .

هر دوي اين مساجددر سمت روبه مكه قرار دارندچون مكه قبله دعا و نماز مي باشد اگر چه مكه در جنوب شرقي  قرار دارداما اين مساجد طوري قرار گرفته كه رو به قبله است .براي حل اين مشكل دو راه حل در بناي اين مسجد پياده نموده اند.

در مسجد شيخ لطف الله خان كوچك  كريدوري قرار دارد كه به طور قومي شكل داخل گنبد دفن شده ودر داخل ساختمان قرار دارنداين بدون هيچ مشكلي درست روبروي ميدان قرار گرفته است .گنبد خودش از قسمت روبرو كاملا مشخص نمي باشد .مسجد شاه كه درست در انتهاي جنوبي ميدان قرار دارد . براي چند مشكل موجود در اين مسجد چند راه حل خوب هم بدست آمد .خط ورودي در مركز مرز جنوبي و ترگيب داخلي را معماران 45 درجه ورودي مسجد را تغيير دادند .مسجد درست پشت در ورودي قرار دارد جايي كه گنبد و ايوانها   كاملا آن را مي پوشاند از ميدان ساختمانهايي كه در اطراف گنبد قرار گرفته اند ديده مي شود % به نظر بسيار عالي مي باشد .

كنندگان كاملا در داخل مسجد و در قسمت كريدورها قرار مي گيرند .مسجد شيخ لطف الله خان توسط شاه عباس بنا گرديد كه زمين آنجا را پدر زنش به وي بخشيده ودر سال 1603ساختن آن را آغاز كرد و يكي از با شكوهترين  بنا هاي آن دوره مي باشد .گنبد آن به رنگ قهوه اي كم رنگ مي باشد و تمام سطح آن را آرا بست هاي آبي و تيره سفيد پوشانيده كه باعث خود نمايي گنبد هاي مسجد مي شود .با بر خورد نور  خورشيد نيز بسيار خيره  كننده مي باشدچون زمينه آن از كاشي هاي غير لعبدار مي باشد.  و با تابش نور خورشيد خيره كننده اي منعكس مي شود .داخل كريدورها با كا شي ها يي كه داراي  ديواره حفاظتي هستند پوشيده شد ،رنگ كاشي ها بسيار روشن و نورانب مي باشد و عبادت كنندگان را مستقيما به تالار مسجد را هنمايي مي كند و تمامي ديوارهاي آن كاملا با كاشي هاي درجه يك پوشيده يك بار ديگر نيز در زمينه قالب بندي تزئين گنبد ها از كاشي هاي غير لعابدار قهوه اي رنگ استفاده شده كه بسيار روشن مي باشد كه به داخل و خارج نذده بنا نفوذ كرده كاشي هاي سطحي بسيار درخشنده و براق هستند .طناب آبي رنگ محكمي ديوارها را به 8 قاب تقسيم مي كند و هر قسمت داراي زمينه گلدار مي باشد اطراف آن داراي كتيبه هاي به رنگ آبي تيره مي باشد .تركيب رنگ آبي در قسمت پايين ديوار با رنگ طلايي گنبد ها چشم را تا مركز گنبد مي كشاند در ساخت اين بناها از كاشي هاي بسيار عالي قرن 17 بسيار استفاده شده كه بسيار براق و داراي كيفيت عالي هستند .مسجد شيخ لطف الله خان و مسجد شاه همانند يك صندوق جواهرات مي باشد كه در ساختن آنها از سبك هاي نوين معماري استفاده شده است.كاشي كاري داخل اين مساجد بسيار با شكوه مي باشد كه 36 سال تمام كاشي كاري مسجد شاه طول كشيد و از 7 رنگ اصلي نيز در اين بنا استفاده شده است .اين سبك در تمامي ديوارها نيز از اين سبك استفاده شده ودر تمامي ديوارها نيز از اين سبك استفاده شده ودر مدت كوتاهي اين ديوارها با كاشي كاري پوشيده ودر داخل حياط مسجد در زمينه هاي گلي كاشي كاري شده .انتقال نور ملايم به سطح كاشي هاي آبي باعث خوب جلوه گر شدن تزئين هاي ورودي شده و كاشي هاي آبي تر از رنگ كه نقاشي شده اند جلوه گر مي شود.

معماران چنين سبك معماري را در مسجد گوهر شاد مشهد نيز پياده كرده اند كه از لحاظ معماري و بناي مناره هاي مسجد بسيار با ارزش و موفقيت آميز مي باشد .در زمان سلجوقي نه بناهاي زيارتي و مقدس و نه ايوانهاي بلند و مناره هاي بزرگ مر بوط به دوره تيموري مي باشد .تزئينات با شكوه مسجد شاه نظير تزئينات عالي قاپو و يا دروازه بزرگ نمي باشد .اين مسجد در آن زمان مكاني براي پذيرايي از نمايندگان و قضات و مهمانان صورت مي گرفت بود و محل بسيار امني بود .قسمت هاي پايين اطاق هاي محافظان بود كه با پله هايي به طبقات بالا راه داشت و پيش خوان هاي رستوران در تمام ساختمان ديده مي شود .كف تماس اين پيش خوان ها با ستون هاي جديدكه برروي پايه هاي سنگي قرار دارند پو شيده شده و سقف تقريبا چوبي مي باشد وبا اشكال هندسي نقاشي شده است . پشت اين پيش خوان ها اطاق كوچك شاه قرار داشت با نقاشي نفيس كوچكي ديوار هاي آن را مزين كرده و در حالي كه طبقه بالا داراي اطاقهايي بود كه در داخل اطاق نيز اطاك هاي كوچكي نيز وجود داشت .سقف و ديوارهاي اطاقهاي طوري بود كه به اطاقهاي موسيقي مي شناختند .در مورد طرح معماري عالي قاپو كه فقط معماري داخلي آن بسيار قابل توجه مي باشد .در پشت ورودي ساختمان غرفه هايي به شكل غرفه هاي اروپائيان ديده مي شود .تعداد اين غرفه ها بسيار زياد است اما در معمار آنها از سبك ايراني استفاده شده .از تعداد زيادي از اين غرفه ها كه اين محل را پر كرده اند و فقط يكي از آنان كه بيشتر از سايرين تازه ودست نخورده باقي مانده چهل ستون بناي ديگري مي باشد كه شبه عالي قاپو بوده اما بزرگتر مي باشد  چهل ستون همانند عالي قاپو توسط 20 ستون چوبي حفاظت مي شود حوض بزرگي نيز در وسط اين بنا داراي 40 ستون مي باشد ودر فرهنگ اروپايي چنين استنباط مي شو د كه عدد 40 در فرهنگ ايراني به معناي زياد مي باشد و آنان در بناهاي خود از عدد 40 زياد استفاده كرده اند اين بنا در زمان شاه عباس دوم تاسيس گرديد وي از سال 1642تا 1666 حكومت كرد و از زمان وي نقاشي هاي ديواري فراواني به جا مانده است . يكي ديگري از بناهاي تاريخي موجود در اين ميدان و در اين دوره بناي قيصريه مي باشد كه در انتهاي ميدان قرار دارد و بازار قيصريه نام دارد كه از شهر قديمي و جديد امتداد داشت و مركز كاروانسراها نيز بود .سقف طرح سقف تونل هاي طويل اين بنا گنبدي شكل مي باشد اجازه دخول نور و روشنايي را به داخل بازار مي دهد اين طرح سقف باعث جلو گيري از گرماي تابستان و تاب نور در زمستان مي شود و دماي بازار در طول سال متعادل مي باشد .در زمان صفويه وجود دو پل بر روي رود خانه هاي اصفهان حمل و نقل و تجارت را امكانپذير مي نمود . اولي پل الله وردي خان تا مسير اصلي جاده شاه عباس امتداد دارد .ديگري پل خواجو مي باشد كه نهايت پيشرفت سبك معماري را نشان مي دهدكه تماشاي مناظر با شكوه آن بسيار لذت بخش مي باشد .مخصوص افراد عادي و پياده است .شماري از زيارتگاهها و مكانهاي مقدس نيز در اين دوره بنا گرديده از جمله مقبره امام رضا در مشهد و حضرت معصومه در قم و شيخ نعمت الله در ماهان مي باشد كه بسيار مورد توجه شاه عباس بود .مشهد در ان دوره توسط تركها اشغال گرديد ولي در سال 1601 شاه عباس دوباره آن را باز پس گرفت و براي پشتيباني از اين مقبره ها دستور ساخت مجتمع هاي ساختماني در اطراف اين مقبره ها نمود .اين ساختمانها داراي گردش گاههاي بزرگي بودكه دو دروازه ورودي داشت دروازه هاي ورودي آنها با شكوه تر  و بلندتر از مسجد شاه اصفهان مي باشد و يك سري از گنبد هاي زيبا اطراف مقبره امام رضا را احاطه كرده اند . د رقم مقبره حضرت معصومه خواهر حضرت امام رضا قرار دارد كه وي را در سال 816 در آن مكان دفن كرده اند .توجهات بيشتر به مقبزه ها د رزمان صفويه خصوصا در زمان حكومت شاه عباس بسيار مرسوم شد . گنبد آبي مقبره ماهان با تزئينات توري بسيار زيبايي پوشيده شده .ماهان پس از مرگ شاه بزرگ شيخ نور الدين نعمت الله در سال 1431 زيارتگاه بسياري از زائران گرديد .محل اصلي زندگي شيخ در سمر قند بود اما پس از مدتي در مركرز ايران ساكن شد .پس از مرگ وي اولين مقبره زيارتي در سال 1437 بنا گرديد اما در سال 1601 توسط شاه عباس مرمت و باز سازي شد و شاه عباس گنبد آجري بزرگي بالاي مقبره بنا نمود .

چند بناي استحكامي نيز از دوران صفويه به جا مانده اما ديواره هاي تخريب شده شهر هم حاكي از بناهاي مستحكم آن دوران مي باشد .تاريخ اصلي بناي بم به دوران ساسانيان بر مي گردد .شهر بم در قرن 11و12 شهر بسيار مستحكمي بود وقتي كه توسط سلجوقي ها اشغال شد اما از باقيمانده بناهاي اين شهر حاكي از دوره هاي قبل صفويه مي باشد مسجد تخريب شده آن محراب دوره صفويه را دارد .اما خانه هاي تخريب شده شهر كه از آجرهاي گلي است و تزئينات مخصوص دارد و مربوط به معماري پيشين مي باشد .اگر چه آجر ديوار دروازه آن گلي مي باشد اما مركز ستاد آن بسيار محكم و تخريب ناپذير بود .در سال 1860 با تاسيس شهر جديد در كنار آن اين شهر تخريب شد.

آخرين ساختمان قابل توجه دوره صفويه كه بزرگترين بناي تاريخي ايران مي باشد و از لحاظ زيبايي بسيار چشمگير و قابل توجه است بنا مدرسه مادر شاه كه ساختمان مادر شاه بود .

اين بنا در مركز شهر قرار دارد و داراي مسجد و كاروانسرا مي باشد و در آمد حاصل از اين كاروانسراها براي اداره مدرسه كافي بود .بازاري نيز در اين مكان وجود داشت كه دانشجويان مي توانستند مايحتاج خود را تهيه كنند .امروزه كاروانسراها تبديل به هتل شاه عباس گرديده و بازار همچنان به فعاليت تجاري خود ادامه مي دهد .

مسجد واقع در آنجا كه طرح و قاب بندي آن شبه مسجد شاه مي باشد . داراي گنبدي بلند و مناره ها و ايوانهاي بزرگ مي باشد .و مزين با كاشي هاي نقاشي شده و كاشي هاي لعابدار مي باشد .در ورودي و مناطقي از حياط مسجد با طرحهاي هندي كه زمينه گلدار دارند و شبه تزئينات مسجد شاه مي باشد آراسته شده،اطاقهاي جفتي كه توسط 4 ايوان تقسيم شده اند در اطراف حياط قرار دارند و در تامين اين بنا از سبك هنري ايراني استفاده شده است .

پس از فروپاشي صفويه كشور توسط افغانها اشغال شد و در اين زمان گروه بسيار قدرتمندي در شمال شرقي كشور بوجود آمدند كه نادر شاه موفق و پيروز خود حكومت اين گروه را بر عهده داشت و افغانها را از ايران بيرون راند .او در نظم امور خيلي موفق بود و به هند حمله كرد و آنجا را تصرف نمود (دهلي)و با غنيمت هاي جنگي فراوان به ايران بر گشت كه شامل تخت سلطنتي مشهور Reacocu  و الماس كوه نور بود .اين جنگها با بسياري از شورشهاي داخلي بهخ هم پيوستند ودر مجموع كشور را تحليل بودند و هيچ گونه بناهاي يادگاري مهم در دوره حكومتي نادر شاه به جا نماند.بعد از قتلو آدمكشي در سال 1747 كشور براي يك ارتباط اصلي و بند انجامي تحت نظر زنده ها آماده بود .بعد از مرگ نادر شاه و آشوب هاي ديگر ،محمد كريم خان زند به اغلب اتحاديه هاي كشوري تحت قانون اجرايي خودش نظم داد و پايتخت خود را به شيراز منتقل نمود .واو در آنجا همچون وكيل يا نائب السلطنه براي دست نشانده اسماعيل سوم سلطه يا حكومت كرد .د ر طول 30 سال حكومت او كشور او يكي از ميانه رو ترين و ترقي روز افزون ترين كشور محسوب مي شد .بويژه در تجارت و بازرگاني قابل توجه بود و آخرين كار او افتتاح BushirدرGulf بود كه مستقيما به شيراز وصل شد و تجارتهاي مهم هم به بريتانيا و هند انتقال داده مي شد .جاهايي كه او ساخت ،مسجد وكيل يك بازار بعلاوه تعدادي از كاروانسراها و حمامها كه بيشتر آنها باقي نماندند ،به طور كلي روش ساخت اين بناها ،اشكال مقدس نماي سابق را توسط رسم و روسوم سابق دنبال مي كنند  اما تغيير مجزا در هر هنر تزئيني كاملا قابل توجه است .مهمترين كاربرد كاري ساختآجرهاي نقاشي شده بود كهدر ابتدا صورتي پررنگ به يك جوهر زرد رنگ تركيب مي شد كه در نهايت يك ظاهر خسته كننده به تركيبات مي داد .در واقع اينها بيشتر به موافقت اصول طبيعي تمايل داشتند يعني شكوفه هايي كه به صورت تمام شكفته ظاهر مي شدند كه كاملا متفاوت از پيچكهاي گلي بود كه توسط معمار صفويه آراسته و يا مزين شده بود .تمامي اين بناها (بناهاي آن دوره)تسط كاربرد به كار گيري رنگ موفق آميز بودند كه اين رنگها بيشتر واضح و كمتر دقيق نسبت به حالا بودند و اين دلالت داشت به كيفيت قوي (خوش بنيله)برخي از طرحها كه دوباره الگوهاي آن دوره را به وجود آوردند .اما با وجود اين به زوال تمايل داشت .زماني كه ايران در حال لذت بردن دوره صلح و ترقي روز افزون توسط زندها بود قاجارها طايفه هاي ترك كه قدزتشان را در شمال متمركز كردند وبعد از مرگ كريم خان زند در سال 1779 به تدريج در برپا كردن تفوق خودشان موفق شدند البته بر خلاف جانشينانشان در سراسر كشور باني سلسله آقا محمد قاجاريكي از شخصيت هاي غير جذاب (غير قابل توجه)در تاريخ ايران بود اگر چه زياده روي او در خونريزي بخشيده نشدني است توسط حقيقتي  كه او زماني  پسري را توسط پسر نادر شاه به قتل رسانده بود .اودر سال 1797 موفقتر شد توسط فتحلي شاه يكي از پادشاهان ايراني كسي كه تا سال 1834 بر ايران حكمراني كرد در مدت حكومتش نظم و ارتباطات سياسي پي درپي او با اروپايي ها آغاز شد كه موقعيت استراتژي ايران را در مسير خاكي به هند را تصديق كردند .دوره قاجار با فعاليت معماري پي در پي ،بخصوص در  طي حكومت فتحعلي شاه مصادف بود .اوو اعضاي خانواده اش عهده دار گنبد هاي طلايي بودند كه هنوز هم بسياري از معبد هاي مزين شده در مشهد و قم وجود دارند (باقي مانده اند )و معبد ديگر در شهر ري نزديك تهران به نام معبد حضرت عبدالعظيم مشهور است .همچنين معبد ماهان توسط قاجارها تحت يك حمايت عظيم احيايي كه در ميان دستورات صفويه اتفاق افتاده بود ساخته شد .در شيراز 2 معبد را با گنبد هاي پيازي رنگ نا معقولي مزين كردند كه باعث زوال شكل واقعي شان مي شد.روش مربوط به فن معماري در طول دوره زندها ادامه داشت و تزئين در طول قرن هيجدهم ادامه داشت و رنگهاي مشابهي به رنگ سياه خالص پيوستند يا تركيب شدند كه نتيجتا تا اندازه اي نا معقول به نظر مي رسيد ودر همين اثنا باعث به وجود آمدن بسياري از طرح هاي برجسته شد .در اين مرحله ،طرح هايي آجري رنگ شده به صورت عكس يا صفحات تصويري و تعدادي از مناظر با شكوه توسعه يافت كه همواره ترسيم مي كنند كارهاي گوناگون وو ديگر فرصت هاي نظامي را كه عادت به تزئين شهر ها دارند كه اغلب اين تزئينات در دروازه هاي شهر قابل روئيت هستند و حالا بسياري از آن خراب يا ويران گشته اند .تعدادي از خانه هاي با شكوه از قرن 19 به جا مانده اند كه توافق اشكال ايراني در مقايسه به قدرت ايراني را نشان مي دهند .در قديم خانه داراي اتاقهاي مختلفي بودند كه براي اهداف ويژه به كار برده مي شدند مطابق درخواست آب و هوايي يعني اتاقهايي براي استفاده هاي زمستاني ساخته مي شدند اگر چه فرهنگ بسيار قوي ايراني ايراني قادر بود اين عقايد را جذب و آنها را براي اين مجموعه بي نهايت راحت و سازگار بپذيرد .جريان سنت معماري ايراني بطور نامتناوب در سراسر دوره  حكومت ادامه داشت .قبل از قرن چهاردهم شواهدي وجود داشت كه دلالت مي كرد بر ترسيم تعدادي از سنت هاي متفاوت ايراني يعني آنهايي كه سر انجام به صورت اتد هاي ايراني در آمدند .اشكال اساسي منتها به نظم در سراسر دنياي اسلامي شدند كه در خارج از ايران فرو مي ريختند .اين اشكال در هند و آسياي مركزي جائي كه تغييرات (اصلاحات)بعدا به وجود آمدند پذيرفته شدند .انا در اصل اين اشكال مال خود ايران مي باشند و در قرن چهاردهم شاهد پيشرفت تزئيني با شكوه اين اشكال بوديم كه به موفقيت 5 قرن مربوط مي شود از قبيل آجرهاي براق شده ،آجر موزائيك و آجرهاي رنگ شده  در زمان مظفري ها و تيموري ها آجر موزائيك به اوج نرسيد در حالي كه در زمان صفويه آجرهاي رنگ شده بوجود آمدند اما هنوز هم از آجر موزائيك و آجرهاي براق شده براي ايجاد تركيبات ممكنه استفاده مي شود .بعد از شروع قرن 18 انحطاطي در مورد آنها بوجود آمد ولي بر خلاف اين انحطاط ،بناهاي دلفريبي در قرن 19 افراشته شدند .اتدهاي ايراني ذاتا و اساسا به سطح  مربئط مي شود .كه باعث يك سري از طرح هاي 2 بعدي مي شود كه هيچ گونه محدوديتي در مورد اساس ساختاري مطابق نظم معماري انجام شده ندارد .در طول 11و12و13 با وجود تاثيرات خارج ،اشكال به هم پيوسته اي در ارتباط با اين اتد هاي طبيعي بوجود آمده اند كه در نتيجه در قرن 15 تركيب كامل از اين اشكال حاصل شد و در قرن 17 اصفهان به طور توجيه پذير قادر بود از عنوان ((نصف جهان ))وجد ببرد.

     INTRODUCTION

The evolution of Islamic architecture in iran is sometimes regarded az a slow development culminating in a magnificent explosion of colour which began in the fourteenth century and continued for the next five hundred years.certainly in many ways the period prior to the fourteenth century can be regarded as a moving prelude,but one in which a considerable number of superb monuments were achieved.These buildings then provided the repertoire of basic forms for the whole of the eastern Islamic world.by the fourteenth century,however,this long rich prelude was over and the Iranian craftsmen emerged masters of form and also of the techniques which enabled them to cover the surfaces of these forms with the richest possible decoration.

The apprenticeship had been strenuous,and had called into play a variety of techniques and styles which drew on the old Iranian traditions of craftsmanship and married them with the fertile skills and imagination of central Asia. this marriage produced a series of basic forms on which the Iranian craftsman could exercise his remarkable skill in surface decoration, his natural milieu. Throughout Iranian history the craftsmen had always been concerned with mastery over surface, and had produced magnificent monuments which functioned perfectly but whose decoration was more important than the actual form beneath .During the eleventh and twelfth centuries while the country was under the domination of the central Asian Turks these roles were reversed and form became the major preoccupation. With this stimulus the Iranian craftsmen created the basic forms required of them and then naturally subsumed them into their own repertoire, so that with the emergence of the first major native Persian dynasty for centuries, the muzaffarids, the way was prepared for a new school of architecture.

As we have said elsewhere the concept ol Iran used in the title of this work needs to be defined because the modern boundaries are historically misleading.

Present-day Iran lies at the heart of a greater Iranian world which formerly included Transoxiana  (the area north of the river oxus) and the whole of the old eastern provinces of Khurasan and Sistan, much of which now lie within the soviet union and Afghanistan. During the timurid   period both capitals of the empire, heart and Samarqand, were situated outside the present boundaries of Iran and accordingly fall outside the scope of this volume. But their influence was of the greatest importance and will be referred to as part of the                  cross- fertilisation which continually occurred. this restriction to the modern boundaries has, however, been maintained in this volume to provide fixed margins within which the developments canbe analysed. Similarly an historical framework has been maintained which, although arbitrary does provide useful signposts. Architectural development is rarely linked directly with the tidy divisions of dynastic history, and in this case both are somewhat complex, so that to avoid too much confusion, implified historical approach has been adopted.

The Muzaffarids 1314-1393

With the disintegration of the mongol ll khan empire in the 1330s a number of small local dynasties appeared , usually only locally effective , and often founded by former Mongol officers and administrators . The Muzaffarids were originally governors of Isfahan and yazd under the Mongols, and in the confusion following the death of Abu sa`id, the last Mongol ruler, in 1336, they acquired Kirman and much of southwestern Iran and Irag. Their main power remained .however , in southern iran , which they held until the advent of Timur to whom they initially prudently submitted. This relationshp was maintained for some ten years but in 1393 Timur decided to extinguish the remaining independent dynasties and the last Muzaffarid ruler was slain. The Muzaffarids were considerable patrons of art. Including acting as patrons to the great poet Hafiz, but their main activity appears to have been architectural. It is as creators of the southern Iranian school  that they will best be remembered. In terms of precise chronology certain of the buildings which will be illustrated can be described as being Mongol, in that they were built during the reign of the last major figure in the ll khan dynasty. But they represent a new style which appeared in southern Iran, an area in which the Muzaffarids were already established although nominally officially acting on behalf of the II khans.

 The great centers of Muzaffarid power were in Yazd, Kirman and Isfahan. From the constructional point of view two complexes in Yazd are important: the mosque known as the Vaqt-u Sa'at and certain sections of the Jami' Mosque. Both were built to the order of one of the leading dignitaries of the Muzaffarid court, and both have been considerably altered since that time, particularly the Vaqt u Sa'at. Originally the tomb of the patron, this small mosque is all that remains of a complex that included a madrasa, a library and even an observatory. The Jami' Mosque has also been much changed and added to over the centuries, and although the main buildings date to I324 and I33I, much of the decoration, including the very fine mihrab , dates to I375 , and other parts to the fifteenth century. It is therefore to another building, the Jami' Mosque in Kirman, that we must turn for the first appearance of the superb overall technique of tile mosaic which was the great innovation of the Muzaffarid period.

The Jami' Mosque of Kirman was built in I349 shortly after Muzaffarids acquired the city, and its decoration appears fully fledged with no apparent or obvious precursors. Prior to this period colour had been used comparatively sparingly to highlight specific architectural points; glazed bricks were used to create patterns on a field of unglazed bricks, and small strips of glazed terracotta were employed to create a form of strap work. In the magnificent mausoleum of Uljaytu at Sultaniyya, built before I3I7, small section of complete tile mosaic appears for the first time, but are no preparation for the sheer mass of tile mosaic which is encountered in the Kirman Jami' Mosque.

This technique was immediately assimilated in southern Iran and tile mosaic mihrabs were inserted in the Jami' Mosque in Yazd and also into the madrasa which the Muzaffarids had already added to the great Jami' Mosque in Isfahan. In addition to the original four colours used at ultaniyya, light and dark blue, white and black, the Muzaffarids added green, a brownish egg-plant colour, and a beautiful golden yellow giving a range of seven colours which were to appear in the most subtle shades and most perfect combinations under the Timurids.

Before discussing the timurids, however, one other dynastic group should be mentioned , the jalayirids.

This family also found their origins in the Mongol army, and eventually ruled in Iraq and northwest Iran. They were particularly concerned with the rising Ottoman power but also had a namber of dealings with the Muzaffarids. Unlike the latter, however, they were carefull to side with Timur and remained  his  vassals, consequently  retaining power, at least locally, until I 432. They were greast patrons of painting and were responsible in part for the creation of the Timurid school of miniature painting their early patronage. There are very few remaining monuments in Iran which can be attributed to the Jalayirids, but in I419 they did add the great minaret to the Jami' Mosque at shushtar. Its decoration is almost archaic when compared to contemporary Timurid minarets, consisting as it does solely of blue-glazed brinks forming designs in a diaper trellis formation against the unglazed brick minaret shaft. Such decoration took no account of the developments in southern Iran nor of the entire Timurid artistic revolution, and would appear to emphasise the total separation of the Mesopotamian area, from the rest of Iran at this time.

The Timurids I 370- I506

After I50 years the eastern Islamic world was at Iast slowly recoveing from the devastation caused by Chingiz khan and the Mongols in the early thirteenth century, although parts of eastern Iran were never to recover, the land slowly turning to desert as the irrigation works ceased to be main-tained. The central Mongol authority had totally decayed but small  local  dynasties,  although frequently at war with each other, at least main-tained a measure of order in which the arts and culture flourished. Into this fragmented but thriving society irruqted the last wave of central Asiatic warrior horsement led by Timur who claimed direct descent from Chingiz khan.

Timur used  his base  in Transoxiana in Sovir Central Asia as the nucleus for a great empire, conquering northeast Iran in the early 1380s, and the remainder by 1393; thereafter he turned north and penetrated as Moscow in 1395 befor sacking Delhi in 1398 and then moving across half of Asia to defeat the Ottomans at Ankara in Turkey in 1402. Timur died in 1405 as  he  was  about for China having divided his empire, among his sons and grand-sons; but his son Shah Rukh was soon in control of the heartlands, including Iran, Irag, and Central Asia, which he ruler from his capital at Heart, even exercising a nominal suzereignty over India and China. Shah Rukh died in 1447, followerd by his son Ulugh Beg in 1449. There after the empire shrank considerably although it was still a major political force.

The advent of Timur himself can generally be regarded as a disaster. In 35 years of campaigning he left an endless trail  of death and destruction, only saving the craftsmen from the countless pyramids of skulls it was his grauesome custom to erect outside captured cities. The craftsment, however, he  sent back to build his new capital at Samarqand  where  a series of buildings  were ceeated which were to become pivotal to the development of eastern Islamic architecture, and consequently  a  number of  diverse a new architectural style. Under the successors of Timur these ideas and techniques spread back to the various regions from which the craftsmen had originated, and a wave of new buildings glorified their return.

Some of the main beneficiaries of this interest in building were the various shrines of Muslim holy men which had emerged in the previous centuries. A number of these "little cities of God" had already appeared in Iran – Bistam, Natanz, Qum, Ardabil. Mahan, and Mashhad – and under the Timurid many grew to become major complexes which eventually formed the nuclei of the great shrine cities of the Safavids and later dynasties. The shrine at Mashhad benefited particularly from the Timurids. the great mosque of Gawhar shad. the wife of shahRukh, being undoubtedly one of the most important mosque erected during the entire period. This mosque contained one very interesting feature  which can be shown to have been taken from Iudia by Timur,and first appeared outside India in the mosque of Bibi khanum at Samarqand. This is the concept  of paired minarets fiankinq an ivan,or portal, instead of surmounting it as had previously been the case in Iran. The idea proved popular and was accepted and even developed as part of their standard repertoire by the Iranian architects 

The great glory of the Timurid period however, was the magnificent tile mosaic work which reached its highest achievement at this time. Under the Muzaffarids the concept of an overall tile mosaic pattern appeared for the first time, and the palette was considerably extended, but nuder Timurid partronage the various colors achieved subtlety which was unsurpassed. Each colour appeared in number of slightly varying shades, so that in the flower panels in particular delicate tones were used to give shading and depth to the compositions The finest examples of this tech- nique appeared in Herat and Samarqand, the two great Timurid  capitale, but a number of examples were also to be seen in Iran in the roval foundatios at Mashhad and khargird, and some superb examples of a slightly more provincial character at Varzana  and Isfahan.Architecturally a number of other forms were developed at this time, in particular certain aspects of the dome. Total separation was achieved between the design for the outer and inner domes. The outer dome was set on a high drum and  shaped to fit the aesthetic formula of the exterior, so that its from complemented the mass of the building and was consequently frequently large and high; the inner dome was conceived solely with regard to the interior space it contrast to the earlier domes the roof with no visible intermediary phases. Internally the squinch was often replaced by the use of the pendentive in various forms, with a corre- sponding lessening in the semi- domes of a number of portal ivans where a stalactite from was intro- duced and the space was not merely relaxed, it was almost destroyed as a single entily by being divided into multiple unite. Combined with this  emphasis on colour and out- ward form went a corresponding interest in size. Portals became very high and facades imposing, while minarets proliferatad with no regard for either utility or tradition Eight minarets had already appeared as a cromn surrounding  the dome of the Mongol mausoleum at Sultaniyya, but their small size was no preparation for the massive series of minarets constructed at Samarqand. Used to flank the various portals and to delimit the area of mosque or madrasa, the minarets event- .ually becametotally ornamental. Serving neither the call to prayer nor the lighthouse function of earlier minarets The cal to payer came to be given from a small kiosk on the roof, called a guldasta while the lighthouse function appears to have been discontinued and the minarets merely served to proclaim the munificence of the founder. Much of this magnificence only appeared in central Asia and the area around Heart, while deeper within Iran the styles were more subject to Persian tradition and adapted to conform to an older usage which nonetheless undoubtedly benefitted from the infusion of these new ideas. Consequently many of the Timurid monuments in Iran show all these characteristics, but are much more restrained in their use.Thesedevelop ments also continued in the second half of the fifteenth century mainly in the eastern part of the country, because in the west and northwest at this time tow Turkmen confederations appeared which effectively blocked Timurid westward expansion and indeed limited the the later Timurids to khuasanonly.

Qara Qoyonlu 1378-1508

Thes tow confederation, known as the Black and White sheep respectively, were groups which had originally formed part of the eleventh and twelfth century Cntral Anatolia which became a hadsttled in eastern Anatolia which became a sink for turbulent and unwanted nomads. With the disintegration of the Mongol Il khan empire the Qara Qoyonlu were able to expand and control northwest Iran and much of Iraq, and although they bowed to Timur's approach, they were able to hold on to area and black any effective western aspirations.

The Aq Qoyonlu were situated further west in Anatolia, but after 1469 they were able to expand eastwards into Iran having defeated the Qara Qoyonlu, and effectively controlled Iran and Iraq down to the Gulf They were mainly concerned with fighting the Ottomans in Anatolia, and were eventually crushed by these and the rising Safavid pawer.

One interesting feature of these Turkmen confederations was their religious affinities. The Qara Qoyonlu were predominantly of the shi'ite party, whereas the Aq Qoyonlu were sunni Muslims, and it has been suggested that one of the reasons for the eventual fall of the Aq Qoyonlu was the spread of shi'ite propaganda among the various Turkic tribes in Anatolia by the Safavids.

Of the monuments which can definitely be assigned to these confederations, the most important is the Blue Mosque at Tabriz. This mosque is particularly fascinating because of its plan and also because of the beautiful blue tile mosaic which gives it its nam.The plan is unusual for Iran in that it is a covered mosque as opposed to a courtyard one, and the central dome is surrounded by a series of small domes, quit unlike any cotemporary Iranian building, but strongly related to the Ottoman mosque This would certainly seem to indicate a major Antolian connection through to the main Ottoman centres in western Turkey, as might well be expected given the common language and origins.

The decoration of the Blue Mosque attained an incredible richness with a deep lapis lazuli blue as the foundation upon which a series of carved arabesques wandered. Much of this is now destroyed but enough remains to attest the skill of the craftsment The upper section of the mihrab chamber was entirely covered with a deep blue mosaic on which was a dado of immense slabs of alabaster.

Other Turkmen monuments in Iran include the Darb-I Imam shrin at Isfahan, some fine tilework in the Maydam Mosque at Kashan, and tile Mosic in the courtyard of the Isfahan Jami Mosque. All of this . however, can be regarded as a continuation of the Timurid style which was maintained in eatern Iran until the end of the fifteenth century . the ottoman – style paln of the blue Mosque was a unique importation and had no major progeny in Iran , so that the Turkmen contribution to Iranian architecture lay mainly in continuing and maintaining already established traditions .

Already during the fifteenth century many of the extreme Timurid characteristics . the high dome and monumental scale . had been refined by Persian influence within Iran proper . the six-teenth and seventeenth centuries were to see the triumph of Persian style and teste under a major native dynasty. Which paradoxically was Turkish speaking , but which emphasized its Iranian antecedents and sought to reform and consolidate the country as an Iranian entity .

The Safavids 1501-1732

  In the early part of the fourteenth century shaykh safi established the Sufi order of the safawiyya at Ardbil In Azarbayjan . This order flourished amang the Turhic tribes in that area, and although it was probably Sunni in origin, the area had an historical tradition of Shi`ism , and by the middle of the fifteeth centure the order was openly was openly Shi`iin emphasis . After a long period of consolidation during the fifteenth century , at which time an intense propaganda was carried out among the tribes , the then leader was able to seize Azarbayjan from the Aq Qoyonlu in 1501 and within ten year was master of the whole of Iran , which he ruled as shah Isma`il , and founded the Safavid monarchy .

Shah Isma`il was not only temporal ruler of the country , but also a major spiritual leader claiming descent from the family of the prophet and an exalted status as representative of the Shi`i Imams . These ideas were accepted by their tribal followers , known as Qizil Bash because of the recaps they wore , and therefore Shi`ism became the state religion to which most of the population eventually adhered , although Azarbayjan was always a center of religious controversy This police also had also had a major political reason in that the ottomans were devout sunnis, and the religious difference helped to create a rallying point around which Iran was able to become a national entity and which has enabled it to survive practically unchanged geographically into modern times the new Safavid state was surrounded by potential enemies, the ottomans to the west, the ozbegs to the northeast and even at times the Mughals to the east. All of these were sunnis and unrelenting in their hostility to the new shi`i regime. Az a result the northeast and northwest borders were  in a constant state of flux and it was judged advisable to  move the capital form Tabriz , which was vulnerably near the ottomans , firstly to Qazvin and then to Isfahan , but the central heart of the country was forged into a permanent unity .

Within the country , religion became an in creasingly important factor , with the result that the remaining Sunni population was certainly discriminated agained , eventually being confined mainly to the northwest . this movement toward Shi`ism , how ever , was not ,erely because of a negative persecution of non – Shi`ites but also because on the establishment of a more positive creative structure of the religious ideas. Concident with the rise of Shi`ism to power came the creation of a major intellectual base for it . The period saw the synthesis of all preceding philosophical and religious schools and many of the Shi`I Sufi orders became graet popular movements.

One of the effects of this isolation of Iran from its neghbours was the reducation of traffic on the great overland trade routes . this was particulary apparabnt in the northeast where the ozbegs blocked the route into central Asia , and almost brought the great Silk Road to an and . The six-teeth century, However, saw the opning up of direct trade with Europe via the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope. This had the effect of bringing Iran into direct contact with Europe as part of the main route to India, and many ideas and inventions flowed along with the more usual items of tread. This European connection was particularly noticeable during the latter part of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries , when during the reign of Shah `Abbas a number of European advisers spent some time at his courting Isfahan .

Very few buildings remain from the early Safavid period .Hthe first  ruler , Shah Ismai`l , built a number of lalaces which have disappeard , the only surviving from his of any signify cance being the Jami Mosque at Save and the mausoleum of Harun-I Vilayat in isfahan . The Save mosque is much ruined but its dome still retains its covering of turquoise tiles overlaid with a polygonal pattern in dark blue and white .This dome refers back to the solution proposed in the Jami Maosque at                 Vermin built under the Mongols , but at the same time has a more graceful line then anything which survives from the fifteenth century .

The Harun –I vilayat tile mosaics which cover the portal and façade have a brilliance of quality and colour which relate strongly to earlier Yimurid word , especially to the Darb-I Imam which was officially erected by the qara qoyonlu. These monuments apart only a few vestiges remain , but the situation is even worsw under Shah Tahmasp his successor .

Shah Tahmasp reigned for over fifty years and was a great patron of the arts . espexially miniature painting carpets and textiles . and was himself something of a painter . In later life he became excessively pious and parsimonious and dismissed a number of the court painters, which had an interesting side effect: the Mughal  Emperor Humayun was an exile at the court of Shah Tahmasp, and on his return to India was able to take two of the finest miniaturists with him who were then instrumental in creating the great Mughal school of painting.  

Shah Tahmasp's parsimony apparently extended to architecture and, his buildings seem to have been of inferior quality since almost nothing now remains. At the time, however, they must have looked impressive, since not only did Humayun take back painters he also returned with sufficient ideas concerning architecture to influence the entire subsequent architectural development in India.                  

Qazvin was Shah Tahmasp's capital, and we are told that he built a Royal Mosque and a palace there of which almost nothing is extant . An earth –quake destroyed almost the whole of Qazvin at the beginning of the nineteenth century , and the only remaining part of the palace is the imposing gateway , the Ali QAPU.

The Royal Mosque was also apparently destroyed as contemporary accounts record . but it s unlikely that it completely vanished , and the remains were probably incorporated in the Royal Mosque built by the Qajars after the earthquake when they rebuilt of the city .

For most people the great glory of Safavid architecture , and indeed perhaps the greatest glory of Islamic architecture in Iran is the Isfahan which was created under Shah Abbas the Great at the beginning of the seventeenth century . at the beginning of his reign the young Shah was forced to cocclude an inglorious treaty with the ottomans in order to concentrate on the Ozbegs who had sacked both Heart and Mashhad :eventually his policies were successful and by the end of his reign the country was united and the frontiers comparatively safe.

Shah abbas had com to the throne as the result of a feud over the succession among the Qizil Bash , and consequently was almost a prisoner in their hands,since they formed a sort of praetorian Guard.  Realizing the situation the the young shah created a new regiment of Georgian   and Armenian  converts  to Islam which was totally dependent on the ruler, similar to the Ottoman Janissaries. He also developed an idea which had first appeared under shah Ismail, and encouraged people to join a new tribecalled shah savan, "friends of the shah ". Thousands joined the new tribe, including many of the Qizl Bash themselves. With this backing the shah was able to contain the remaining Qizil Bash and even sequestrate many of their Iands  to the crown which thereby became even more  powerful.

His next step was a complete  reorganization of the army and in this he was assisted by the growing contacts with Europe, such as the arrival of sherley brothers in Iran in 1598. Both were competent soldiers and also had with them a canon-founder, and were thus able to organise batteries of artillery as well as regiments of regular infantry, overcoming an initial safavid reluctance to use firearms which had perhaps been regarded as unchivalric. These additions enabled the Persian armies to meet the Turks on an equal footing, and they were able to recapture all the places which had fallen to the ottomans. Iran's situation on the       sea-route to India was of interest to many people, including  the Persians themselves, as a means of by-passing turkey on the silk route and thereby lowering customs dues, and incidentally helping Iran's own nascent silk production. This trade eventually became quite considerable and resulted in increasing connections with Europe and the consequent introduction of a number of European ideas, the continued threat from the ottomans combined with this interest in the sea trade induced shahAbbas to move his capital further south to  Isfahan, already an important town on the main internal trade routes. Successive rulers had adorned the city with a number of fine buildings, including the great Jami`Mosque, In itself a history of Islamic architecture, but the Shah decided  to lay out an entirely new city alongside the old, with an axial plan, a great central square and major arterial roads.The central square, the Maydan, formed the nucleus of this new city, and around it the grouped one of the finest series of buildings in the world which, at the time of its glory, dazzled all who saw it.

Isfahan is built on a river, the Zayanda, which runs east- west, and the main axis of shah 'Abbas ' city ran north – south to join it. The  great Maydan was originally designed as the polo ground and measures over 500 metres in length and 146 width, and still has the carved stone goal- posts at each end. The square runs directly north-south, and of the  four main buildings which face onto it, two are mosques, the shaykh Lutfallah and the immense royal Mosque. Both  had  to be directed  towards Mecca because of liturgical  reasons, however, Mecca liws almost due southwest. Two different solutions were  found to this problem by the architects. The smaller shaykh Lutfallah is entered by a corridor which curves in on itself so that the actual dome chamber is buried within the mass of the fabric and is therefore able to be correctly orientated without disturbing the align- ment of the façade with the square. This has the result that the dome itself does not appear immediately behind the façade but to the side; however, the slightly inconsequential air which  this affords is in no way detrimental to the overall effect.

The Royol Mosque, which dominates the southern end of the Maydan,presented a different problem and  required a    different solution. The entrance portal lies in the centre of the southern boundary,and within  this entrance complex the architect has successfully turned the entire mosque through a 45 degree angle. Thus instead of the mosque Lying immediately behind the portal. Where in fact the dome and ivans would have been partially obscured, it all lies to the side and can be seen in its totality. So finely has this been designed that the line of the building seems to rise in an increasing crescendo towards the dome as it is seen from the Maydan, and is therefore completely natural in appearance. by also blocking the direct  approach within the mosque and forcing the worshipper to enter through a side corridor, the turn within the entrance complex is also disguised.

The shaykh lutfallah mosque was erected by shah Abbas in honour of his saintly father-in-law, and was one of the first buildings to be erected on the square.It was begun in I 603 and is one of the most exquite building erected in modern times. Its low pale coffee-coloured dome, with a series of great arabesques in dark blue and white  winding  over its surface , has an air repose quite different to that of the majority of the other domes of the city which thrust themselves flauntingly aloft. This air of repose is enlivened by sudden flashes of sun light because the background bricks are unglazed, so that the sun only reflects from the glazed arabesques and the eye is constantly aroused whilst resting on its calm surface.

The façade and entrance corridor are covered with a rich tile mosaic revetment which is very subtly lighted so as to lead the worshipper in such a way that he enters the great dome chamber completely disorientated, and is immediately bathed in the radiance of the superb tile mosaics which cover the walls and lead in a series of diminishing medallions across the dome interior to the central sunburst, the dome once again makes use of unglazed coffee-coloured bricks as a background to the medallions, so that the light, which is filtered twice through an inner and outer grill, breaks on the surface, which therefore shimmers and is constantly alive. A strong blue rope moulding  divides the walls into eight panels, each of which has a central section of great floral arabesque patterns framed by a cursive inscription in white on a dark blue ground. The effect is overwhelming, the deep blue of the lower walls slowly merging into the gold of the dome leads the eye up to the central point of infinity, while the richness and perfection of the detail, perhaps the finest tile mosaic of the seventeenth century, both exhilarate and delight by their supreme inspiration.

If the shaykh lutfallah is like an exquisite jewel casket, the royal mosque overwhelms by its sheer monumentality. but this very scale necessitated the creation of new techniques. To have covered the entire mosque with tile mosaic would have required more than the 26 years it took to complete in spite of the  impatience of the Shah, and therefore the famous seven-coloured painted tiles were invented. This technique enabled the artists to cover large areas of wall surface within a comparatively short time, and with the exception of the inscriptions the entire interior courtyard of the mosque is covered with this tile work. This seems to impart softer glow to the surface which bathes the spectatoer in a blue radiance which contrasts which contrast with the brilliance of the entrance portal, whose tile mosaic achieved a deeper blue than was possible with painted tiles, and whose  height still gives an awesome solemnity when seen across the Maydan.

The architects obviously took the great mosque of Gawhar Shad in Mashhad as their model, to which it is a worthy successor, but have achieved an interesting compromise with the flanking minaret form. Neither the sanctuary nor the portal minarets rise from the top of the Ivan as in  Saljuq times, or flank the Ivan as in the Timurid example, but instead rise at mid-height, resting on the Side arcades in a semi-flanking movement: an ingenious and totally Persian resolution of the two ideas.

The splendid portal of the Royal Mosque is matched by the unusual nature of the entrance to the palace complex, the Ali Qapu, or "High Gate".

This refers to its role as the visible seat of authority and place of refuge where petitions were presented and judgments delivered. The lower section consisted of guard rooms and an extraordinarily steep staircase which led to the upper levels where an immense, high loggia looked over the square. The roof of this loggia is reared on a number of wooden columns resting on stone bases, and the roof is also of wood, painted with a series of geometrical patterns. Behind this loggia lies a small throne room with a delicate series of wall paintings, while the upper storey consists of a central room surrounded by a group of smaller rooms, all with finely fretted walls and ceilings, and known collectively as the Music room.

The whole Ali Qapu complex presents a distinctly  ungainly appearance, and was obviously designed  from the inside. That is functionally, rather than for  aesthetic appeal. Behind this entrance stretched the palace area, which was more like a series of pavilions in a garden than the more formal European idea of a palace, although such a concept is certainly more in keeping with the classical and traditional Persian view of a palace. of the many  pavilions which originally filled this area only one survives in anything like its original state, although some others remain and are currently being restored. The Chihil Sutun. or "Forty Columns", is a small building with a magnificent loggia, similar to that of the Ali Qapu but larger. This is supported by 20 wooden columns, as in the Ali Qapu, and these in turn are reflected in a great pool in front of the building, so that this would indeed appear as forty columns. This however is a European logical approach and fails to take into account that in Persian the word "forty" may often be used to mean "many", and the name probably means "many columns". this building was erected in the reign of  Shah `Abbas ll. Who ruled from 1642 to1666, and has some fine wall paintings.

Commerce was certainly not neglected, and at the far end of the Maydan stands the Qaysariyya bazaar, truly a royal bazaar linking the old and new cities in a continuous warren of shops and caravanserais.

These long tunnel formations are roofed with a series of domes, pierced to allow a gentle light to flood into the bazaar below. Because of the height and consequent diffusion of the light, too much heat is prevented from entering during the summer or escaping in winter, and the bazaar thus maintains a comparatively even temperature throughout the year.

Associated with this concern for commerce, the Safavid period also saw the erection of two important bridges at Isfahan which allowed the important caravan trade easy access to the city. The first, that of Allahvardi Khan , continued the line of Shah "Abbas" main axial road, the Chahar Bagh, and protected the caravans between high walls while providing an arcaded footway on either side for pedestrians. The Khwaju bridge, built by Shah "Abbas" II, is a further development of this idea, and in addition to the roadway and the arcades provides an elegant pavilion on either side for the enjoyment of the view. And a lower level intended for pedestrians.

A number of the shrine cities also benefited from  the attentions of Shah "Abbas", notably that of the Imam Reza at Mashhad, that of Fatima at Qum, and that of Shaykh Ni`matallah at Mahan. At various  times the city of Mashhad had been sacked by the central Asian Turks and indeed Shah "Abbas" only recovered it in 1601, whereupon he immediately gave orders for the restoration of the shrine and added a number of buildings mainly in order to define and organize the shrine complex.

These included a wide esplanade which entered the old court through two magnificent portals, each higher than that of the Royal Mosque at Isfahan, and a series of dome chambers around the tomb of Imam Reza itself.

At Gum is the tomb of Fatima, The sister of the Imam Reza, who died and was buried there in 816. as a Shiite sanctuary it received special attention from the Safavids, three of whom were buried in the sanctuary which had been erected mainly by Shah "Abbas" The superb blue dome which he erected over the sanctuary is covered with a fine web of delicate tracery which has great affinities with the dome he built at the shrine at Mahan.

Mahan grew into a centre of pilgrimage after the death there in 1431 of the famous poet and mystic Shaykh Nur ad-Din Ni`matallah. The Shaykh had originally lived in Samarqand, but had moved down to central Iran. After his death the first shrine was erected on the site in 1437, but was extensively enlarged and rebuilt by Shah "Abbas" in 1601, who built the great blue dome over the tomb itself.

Few fortifications remain from Safavid times, but the ruins of the walled city of Bam give a good impression of what they  must have looked like. Bam originally dates back to Sasanian times.and was considered a very strong town in the eleventh and twelfth centuries when it was taken by the Saljuqs, but most of the remaining constructions date back no earlier than the Safavid period and possibly more recently. Its ruined mosque has a Safavid mihrab, while a number of the more opulent town houses have the remains of typical period decoration a mud- brick rendering of designs usually associated with more permanent structures.

Although of mud-brick the walls themselves are massive with an impressively designed gaenouse , while the citadel still retains its impegntible appearance ,its lower courtyards and stabling area having the look of recent occupation. In fact the town was deserted in I860 when a new town was built nearby, due mainly to a shift in the water-course.

The last major building of the Safavid period is often referred to as the last great building in Iran, although this is obviously a considerable exaggeration. The Madar-I Shah Madrasa in Isfahan was built by Shah Sultan Husayn in I706 and was dedicated to the Mother of the Shah. Situated in the middle of the city the college contains a major mosque and is linked to a caravanserai, the income from which was intended to assist in the upkeep of the college. There was also a bazaar which ran alongside the college and the caravanserai which also provided  for the wants of the students. The caravanserai has now become the Shah ,Abbas Hotel, while the bazzar once again fulfills its original function.

The mosque with its high dome and minarets semi-flanking the ivan is closely modelled on that of the Royal Mosque, the whole covered in a combination of painted tiles and tile mosaic exactly as that of its illustrious predecessor . In the portal complex and in some of the courtyard areas fine geometrical patterns have replaced much of the richer flower ornaments of the Royal Mosque , but they seem very much in keeping with the scale of the building and create no sense of unwarranted economy. The rhythm of the double arcades around the courtyard, broken only by the four ivans, induces a feeling of repose and tranquility in an atmosphere worthy of the greatest Iranian traditions.

The Zands and Qajars I750 – I924

The death throes of the Safavid dynasty saw the country invaded by the Afghans. During this period the leader of an important tribal grouping in northeast Iran managed to make himself ruler As Nadir Shah and succeeded in driving out the Afghans. He was indeed so successful that he managed to invade India and captured Delhi, from which he returned laden with booty including the famous Peacock thron and the Kuh-I Nur diamond.

These wars, coupled with many internal revolts, totally exhausted the country , and major monuments are credited to Nadir's period of power. After his assassination in I747 the country was ready for the period of relative peace and prosperity under the Zands. After the death of Nadir Shah and the subsequent unrest, Muhammad Karim Khan Zand managed to unite most of the country under his rule and transferred the capital to Shiraz whence he ruled as Vakil, or Regent, for the puppet Safavid Isma'il III. His reign of almost thirty years was one of moderation and prosperity during which the country flourished. This was particularly noticeable in trade and commerce, and led to the opening up of Bushire on the Gulf which was directly connected with Shiraz, and through which considerable trade was conducted with Britain and India. 

Karim Khan's major contribution to architecture was in Shiraz where he built the Vakil mosque, a bazaar, and a palace, as well as a number of caravanserais and baths, most of which have not survived. In general the style of these buildings follows the earlier forms long sanctified by custom and precedent, but a distinct change is noticeable in the quality of the decoration. Great use was made of painted tiles, but a rather strong pink appeared combined with an acid yellow which gave a heavier appearance to the compositions. These also tended to be more naturalistic, with blossoms appearing full-blown, quit distinct from the more delicate flower tendrils which adorned Safavid architecture.

The whole of this and the succeeding period were characterized by a strong use of colour.

The colours were also more vivid and less subtle than in earlier times; this imparted a vigorous quality to some of the designs, which exactly reproduced the carpet patterns of the period, but there was an easy tendency towards decadence.

While Iran was enjoying a period of peace and prosperity under the Zands, the Qajars, a Turkic tribe, were consolidating their power in the north, and after the death of Karim Khan Zand in I779, eventually succeeded in establishing their own supremacy over his successors throughout the country. The founder of the dynasty, Agha Muhammad Qajar, was one of the most unattractive characters in Iranian history, although his bloodthirsty excesses can partially be explained, if not excused, by the fact that he was castrated when a boy by the nephew of Nadir Shah. He was succeeded in I797 by Fath 'ali Shah, one of Iran's most colourful monarchs, who reigned until I834. During this reign regular and continuous diplomatic relations were set up with Europe which appreciated the strategic position of Iran across the land route to India.

The Qajar period was a time of almost continuous architectural activity, particularly during the reign of Fath 'Ali Shah. He and his copious family were responsible for the golden dome which still adorn many of the shrines at Mashhad and Qum, and also at the shrine of Hazrat "abd al-Azim" at Rayy near Tehran. The shrine at Mahan also benefited from the attention of the Qajars, under whose patronage a great resurgence took place among the Sufi orders, and in Shiraz they adorned two shrines with extravagantly bulbous domes which almost reduce this form to absurdity.

The architectural style continued that of the Zands.

The decoration also continued along the lines of the eighteenth century, the same colours being joined by a strong black which resulted in some what extravagant and very striking designs. At This stage the painted tile designs also progressed to figurative panels and a number of superb scenes depicting various guards and other military moments were used to adorn the new cities. These were particularly popular on the city gates now largely destroyed.         

A number of fine houses remain from the nineteenth century showing the adaptation of Persin froms to European influences especially to the concept of defrent rooms for special purposes. This idea was quite at odds with former Iranian ideas whereby a room was used according to its climatic appeal that is rooms for summer and others for winter. Although at variance with its Owen tradition the rich Iranian culture was abie to absorb these ideas and adapt them to create a harmonious and extremely comfortable ensemble.                           

The sweep of Iranian architectural tradition thus continued unbroken throughout the period under discussion. Prior to the fourteenth century extant evidence would indicate that form had reached its ultimate solution. Drawing upon a number of different traditions all of which were eventually subsumed within the Iranian ethos the basic forms which were to rule throughout the whole of the eastern Islamic world were hammered out in Iran. These forms were taken over and adapted in India and Centra Asia where modifications   

Were subsequently achieved but the essence was basically Iranian. In Iran itself the fourteenth century saw this form clothed in its most spectacular raiment, and in essence it was with the development of this magnificent decoration that the succeeding five centuries were concerned. Glazed bricks, tile mosaic and painted tiles composed this covering, with different centuries being supreme in different techniques. Under the Muzaffarids and Timurids tile mosaic reached a height which has never been surpassed, while the Safavids introduced painted tiles but still retained  tile mosaic and glazed bricks to create the richest possible combinations on a scale totally beyond the scope of any succeeding age. After the beginning of the eighteenth century a decline set in, but this was a decline measured against perfection, and many interesting and indeed fascinating buildings were erected during the nineteenth century.

 The Iranian ethos is essentially concerned with surface, with creating a series of two-dimensional planes which take no account of the limitations of any underlying structure in order to achieve architectural poetry.   During the  eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries outside influences and forms mingled with this natural ethos, and consequently by the fifteenth century a perfact synthesis had been achieved , and seventeenth century Isfahan was justifiably able to rejoice in  its title `Half the Word